Course in General Linguistics

Translator's Introduction Preface to the First Edition INTRODUCTION I. A Glance at the History of Linguistics II. Subject Matter and Scope of Linguistics; Its Relations with Other Sciences III. Object of Linguistics -- 1. Definition of Language -- 2. Place of Language in the Facts of Speech -- 3. Place of Language in Human Facts; Semiology IV. Linguistics of Language and Linguistics of Speaking V. Internal and External Elements of Language VI. Graphic Representation of Language -- 1. Need for Studying the Subject -- 2. Influence of Writing; Reason for Its Ascendancy over the Spoken Form -- 3. Systems of Writing -- 4. Reasons for the Discrepancy between Writing and Pronunciation -- 5. Results of the Discrepancy VII. Phonology -- 1. Definition -- 2. Phonological Writing -- 3. Validity of Evidence Furnished by Writing APPENDIX: PRINCIPLES OF PHONOLOGY I. Phonological Species -- 1. Definition of the Phoneme -- 2. The Vocal Apparatus and its Functioning -- 3. Classification of Sounds According to Their Oral Articulation II. Phonemes in the Spoken Chain -- 1. Need for Studying Sounds in the Spoken Chain -- 2. Implosion and Explosion -- 3. Different Combinations of Explosions and Implosions in the Chain -- 4. Syllabic Boundary and Vocalic Peak -- 5. Criticism of Theories of Syllabication -- 6. Length of Implosion and Explosion -- 7. Phonemes of Aperture 4; Diphthongs; Questions about Transcription -- Editor's Note PART ONE: GENERAL PRINCIPLES I. Nature of the Linguistic Sign -- 1. Sign, Signified, Signifier -- 2. Principle I: The Arbitrary Nature of the Sign -- 3. Principle II: The Linear Nature of the Signifier II. Immutability and Mutability of the Sign -- 1. Immutability -- 2. Mutability III. Static and Evolutionary Linguistics -- 1. Inner Duality of All Sciences Concerned with Values -- 2. Inner Duality and the History of Linguistics -- 3. Inner Duality Illustrated by Examples -- 4. The Difference between the Two Classes Illustrated by Comparisons -- 5. The Two Linguistics Contrasted According to Their Methods and Principles -- 6. Synchronic Law and Diachronic Law -- 7. Is There a Panchronic Viewpoint? -- 8. Consequences of the Confusing of Synchrony and Diachrony -- 9. Conclusions PART TWO: SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS I. Generalities II. The Concrete Entities of Language -- 1. Definition of Entity and Unit -- 2. Method of Delimitation -- 3. Practical Difficulties of Delimitation -- 4. Conclusion III. Identities, Realities, Values IV. Linguistic Value -- 1. Language as Organized Thought Coupled with Sound -- 2. Linguistic Value from a Conceptual Viewpoint -- 3. Linguistic Value from a Material Viewpoint -- 4. The Sign Considered in Its Totality V. Syntagmatic and Associative Relations -- 1. Definitions -- 2. Syntagmatic Relations -- 3. Associative Relations VI. Mechanism of Language -- 1. Syntagmatic Solidarities -- 2. Simultaneous Functioning of the Two Types of Groupings -- 3. Absolute and Relative Arbitrariness VII. Grammar and Its Subdivisions -- 1. Definitions: Traditional Divisions -- 2. Rational Divisions VIII. Role of Abstract Entities in Grammar PART THREE: DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS I. Generalities II. Phonetic Changes -- 1. Their Absolute Regularity -- 2. Conditioned Phonetic Changes -- 3. Points on Method -- 4. Causes of Phonetic Changes -- 5. The Effect of Phonetic Changes Is Unlimited III. Grammatical Consequences of Phonetic Evolution -- 1. Breaking of the Grammatical Bond -- 2. Effacement of the Structure of Words -- 3. There are No Phonetic Doublets -- 4. Alternation -- 5. Laws of Alternation -- 6. Alternation and Grammatical Bond IV. Analogy -- 1. Definition and Examples -- 2. Analogical Phenomena Are Not Changes -- 3. Analogy as a Creative Force in Language V. Analogy and Evolution -- 1. How an Analogical Innovation Enters Language -- 2. Analogical Innovations as Symptoms of Changes in Interpretation -- 3. Analogy as a Renovating and Conservative Force VI. Folk Etymology VII. Agglutination -- 1. Definition -- 2. Agglutination and Analogy VIII. Diachronic Units, Identities, and Realities Appendices to Parts Three and Four -- 1. Subjective and Objective Analysis -- 2. Subjective Analysis and the Defining of Subunits -- 3. Etymology PART FOUR: GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS I. Concerning the Diversity of Languages II. Complications of Geographical Diversity -- 1. Coexistence of Several Languages at the Same Point -- 2. Literary Language and Local Idiom III. Causes of Geographical Diversity -- 1. Time, the Basic Cause -- 2. Effect of Time on Continuous Territory -- 3. Dialects Have No Natural Boundaries -- 4. Languages Have No Natural Boundaries IV. Spread of Linguistic Waves -- 1. Intercourse and Provincialism -- 2. The Two Forces Reduced to One -- 3. Linguistic Differentiation on Separate Territories PART FIVE: CONCERNING RETROSPECTIVE LINGUISTICS I. The Two Perspectives of Diachronic Linguistics II. The Oldest Language and the Prototype III. Reconstructions -- 1. Their Nature and Aim -- 2. Relative Accuracy of Reconstructions IV. The Contribution of Language to Anthropology and Prehistory -- 1. Language and Race -- 2. Ethnic Unity -- 3. Linguistic Paleontology -- 4. Linguistic Type and Mind of the Social Group V. Language Families and Linguistic Types Index